TWO APPROACHES IN CENTRAL ASIAN DIPLOMACY IN THE 16TH–17TH CENTURIES: IDEOLOGICAL-SEMIOTIC CONFLICTS AND ECONOMIC PRAGMATISM
Vol. 6 No. 5 (2026) 129-133
Abstract
This article analyzes two contradictory yet complementary directions of the foreign policy of the Central Asian khanates (Bukhara and Khiva) in the 16th–17th centuries. The first pole highlights the uncompromising ideological and information-psychological wars with Safavid Iran, the "War of letters", and diplomatic semiotics (the language of gifts). The second pole analyzes the highly pragmatic, economic, and trade-based diplomacy established with Russia and China, which bypassed religious and ideological barriers. Based on primary sources and archival documents, it is scientifically substantiated that the region's rulers acted in foreign policy based on the real situation ("Realpolitik").
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References
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