MEASUREMENT ERRORS IN GEODESY

Abstract

Errors accompany every geodetic observation, whether the observation is a zenith angle read with a theodolite, a carrier-phase measurement on a GNSS receiver, or a gravity reading with a spring gravimeter. Their presence does not mean a survey is unreliable; it simply means that uncertainty must be quantified and minimised by careful instrument design, thoughtful field procedure and rigorous adjustment computation. This paper classifies measurement errors in geodesy into random, systematic and gross varieties, reviews their physical origins, outlines statistical tools for their propagation, and demonstrates practical mitigation strategies. A comparative experiment using electronic total-station distance observations, dual-frequency GNSS baselines and differential levelling loops illustrates how error characteristics differ across techniques.